Edible, or plant-based oils are an ideal working medium for baby massage. However any edible oil has the potential to cause an allergic reaction – just as any food could do [Breiteneder]. If the infant’s skin is broken the risk of being exposed to food allergens is greater [Lack 2003]. The molecular structure of plant-based oil ensures it mostly only absorbs into the uppermost surface layers of the skin [Zatz 1993]. However, recently more evidence of transcutaneous absorption of topically massaged oil in neonates is being shown (in preterm as well as term infants) [Solanki 2005 ].

To make a decision of what oil to choose, it is best to consider:

1. Individual/cultural/national preference (it is up to the parents to choose their oil of choice)
2. availability
3. skin type
4. how and where (the environment) you are going to use and store it
5. allergy risk

Check the highest allergy risks in your country i.e.  peanut (also called groundnut/arachis) and sesame are high allergy risks in the UK [The Anaphylaxis Campaign]. Do a web search on the oil you are using, to check for any contraindications. These research studies on oils may influence the choice of oil you use i.e. Safflower oil (skin reactions) [Solanki], Flax oil (genotoxic) [Rojas-Molina] and Mustard oil (toxicity) [Darmstadt 2002] are a few examples.

Baby massage oil should act as a good medium for carrying out massage movements without causing drag or friction. Massaging without oil can be irritating, especially for a sensitive newborn [Field ‘96].

True organic oil can be expensive and may not be freely available, as strictly speaking, not only must the seed be organically grown, but also the production process should exclude the use of chemicals. The quality of the starting material - nuts, seeds, fruits - will also determine the quality of the oil.
True cold pressed oil is more costly. Beware of claims made by oil manufacturers that may be untrue e.g. ‘cold pressed’ grape-seed oil is thick and treacle-like; grapeseed oil that looks clear in colour and thin in texture, has been subjected to a high temperature, high pressure process, or may have been treated with steam and solvents.
Cold-pressed oil is obtained from:

1. the raw material being pressed with a hydraulic press to squeeze out the oil i.e. soft, oily seeds such as olive, and sunflower are suitable for this.
2. harder seeds, such as almond, require more force and a large, powerful screw device (expeller) to crush the plant material. This process generates a certain amount of heat, which may alter the oil. After pressing, the crushed shells etc are removed from the oil by a series of filters and the oil is left with its nutritional properties intact.
3.  a cold-pressed oil, which may well then go on to be refined  - a step not often mentioned!

Refined oil is obtained from the vegetable pulp (which may be left after cold pressing) that still contains a reasonable amount of oil. It may then be subjected to a high temperature, high pressure process, or may be treated with steam and solvents. The refining process alters the character of the oil. However it can also render the oils hypoallergenic and safe for consumption by allergic individuals [Hefle]. Allergy of oils is a subject that is constantly subjected to controversy and the bibliography does not cease to give contradictory examples [Fremont].

If there is a question of the child possibly being allergic to a specific oil, the parents could do a ‘patch test’. Recent research recommends that both positive and negative predictive values were better when the occlusion time was 48 hours.

1. Mineral oil (paraffin oil), which is used for some commercially produced oil/gel, is not an ideal medium for baby massage. This oil/gel does not absorb into the outer layers of the epidermis, leaving a greasy film on the baby’s skin. This pore-sealing effect may hamper the natural functions of the skin (excretion, heat regulation etc.). Mineral oil is a highly processed by-product of petroleum; it is not broken down by the body or used in our diet, so the safety of babies sucking their fingers after application is an unknown risk factor.

1. Most mineral-based baby massage oils/gels have an added scent, which may not be appropriate for a sensitive newborn who relies on the normal smell of their parent for bonding, feeding and instinctive sense skills.

 

1. Some brands of baby massage oil contain a mixture of several oils. This can make spot testing difficult when trying to isolate the cause of possible skin reactions or allergies.

1. Some baby massage oils have essential oils added. These are known to have therapeutic effects, which may not be appropriate for the immature system of neonates. For safety reasons they should be avoided. If the parents wish to use essential oils as a treatment, they should consult a qualified aromatherapist who specialises in treating babies and their individual specific needs.

 

1. Essential oils are sometimes added to baby massage oil, claiming therapeutic benefits such as that they are “relaxing” or “soothing” for babies. All babies are unique human beings and should be valued as having their own personalities and physiological traits; we should avoid using ‘blanket’ medications (even very small quantities of essential oils can have medicinal effects).

1. Some manufacturers produce a whole ‘baby range’ that contains essential oils. There is a concern that parents may unwittingly use them all together (on the skin, nappy area, hair, in the bath and for inhalation), which could be intensely overwhelming for the infant’s sensitive physiological system.

 

1. A scented oil, whether it is a natural or chemical scent, is best avoided as the fragrance can MASK THE OBVIOUS ODOUR OF RANCID OIL.

• There is no research to validate the safety of using essential oils for infants: those advising or prescribing these oils are advised to check their insurance cover.

 

For vulnerable premature or sick babies, who have unique skin problems [Hoath], and may have a poorly functioning immune system, it is safer to use a highly purified/refined oil. Refined oil, has a limited smell, is thin in texture, has a longer shelf-life (check the oil’s Material Safety Data Sheet), and is less likely to contain any unwanted impurities, high lead levels, yeast moulds, fungal spores, or allergens, which can be present in cold pressed oils. When choosing an oil for in-patient use, check with the hospital’s Paediatric Allergist, the ward Consultant and Manager, the Pharmacist and the latest Nursing & Midwifery Council recommendations.

SAFETY ISSUES

• Bacteria are not generally supported by oil. There is no evidence that application of refined oil to neonatal infant skin (when giving Positive Touch or Massage) causes any increased bacteria or fungal cultures [Darmstadt 2007, Kusmirek]. 
• Oil application on premature infants has been shown to decrease the incidence of dermatitis by restoring the epidermal barrier. Thus application of oil may improve outcome in neonates who are at risk with compromised barrier function [Darmstadt 2002].
• Edible oils are not generally absorbed into the systemic circulation, as the molecular structure of these oils is not conducive to trans-dermal transfer [Lee], however certain components, such as triglycerides, in the oil can be absorbed leaving the skin in better condition and increasing blood lipid levels (important in preterm infants) [Pourarian].
• Vegetable oil has not been found to be degraded by phototherapy, and there is no substantiation of burning of preterm skin under lights or heaters after oil application [Lee/Nooper].
• There is no researched evidence to warrant the use of essential oils on infants in a NICU. The Nursing and Midwifery Council [NMC], documents standards for the administration of medicines which states that practitioners who use substances such as essential oils must be fully trained and competent. Also they should recognise the importance of consent from the client (we should consider this to be the baby, as well as the parent); also the practitioner must be accountable for their own professional practice.

ALLERGIC PROPERTIES OF EDIBLE OILS.
Any product that is edible has the potential to trigger an allergic reaction [Crevel].

• The allergens in oil are bound to protein molecules, which are too big to directly enter the blood stream via the skin route if the skin were healthy and intact. If the skin is inflamed or broken there is a risk that this could sensitize the baby, increasing the risk allergy in the future [Lack].
• When oils are highly purified (refined), allergen-bound proteins are mostly destroyed, so there is a greatly reduced risk (some say no risk) of the oil causing an allergy. [Hourihane‘97].
• Nut and sesame allergies are common and on the increase: the highest risk is peanut allergy which can be life threatening [Ewan]. Allergenic proteins may be found in the refined oil due to cross contamination with other oil products [Olszewski]. Check the Anaphylaxis Campaign website for more information.
• To have an allergic reaction one must first be sensitized.  A newborn infant may already be sensitized to allergens transferred in utero (during the last trimester) from the mother via the placenta. The breast-fed infant may be exposed to human milk-borne allergens derived from foods the mother has eaten during lactation.  [Lovegrove ’94].

 

The coconut palm is grown in many tropical areas, with the Philippines and Indonesia being the most important regions in terms of international trade.
Coconut oil is extracted from the white flesh of the coconut, which when pressed yields an odorous solid fat that has therapeutic properties.  The white flesh of the coconut has an oil yield of up to 65%, making it the highest yielding of traditional oil-bearing materials, and contains over 90% saturated fatty acids [NEODA].

The whole oil (un-fractionated) is wonderful for baby massage with babies who are not in hospital or those who do not have immune or nut allergy problems.

Fractionated (refined) coconut oil is probably safer for use in hospital situations.
To extract the fractionated oil, this fat is subjected to heat and the top liquid fraction is removed [SCOPA]. 

• This fractionation process purifies the oil removing the fungal spores, pesticides and yeast moulds that may be present in some unrefined oils.

• Fractionation produces perfume-free oil that stays in liquid form.

 

• Fractionated coconut oil does not oxidise (‘go off’) as quickly as other oils. The stabilization quality of this oil is particularly advantageous when used in a warm environment such as the NICU.

• It is rare for coconut to cause an allergic reaction and should a reaction occur it is usually mild [Dr Lack]. The process of fractionation removes most of the proteins to which the allergens are attached.

 

• There have been studies demonstrating the presence of cross-reactive allergens between tree nuts such as hazelnut and coconut, which is a distantly related palm family member [Roux].

We have used this oil as a medium to facilitate the Positive Touch Programme on the Winnicott Baby Unit. The programme is designed to encourage safe, loving contact between parents and baby. Positive Touch is part of our family centered approach to infant care. The oil is mainly used by parents, giving them a precious opportunity to make an active contribution to their infant's well being.
The main function of the oil is to act as a lubricant so that movement over the skin is not abrasive. Stroking the skin without oil causes friction and can stimulate an adverse reaction in babies [Field ‘96]. Fractionated coconut oil is an ideal medium for massage in the neonatal unit as it is a pure, light, non-greasy emollient [Watt].

A small, brown glass bottle of oil is supplied to each baby with batch number, baby’s name, and expiratory and opening dates on the label. This avoids any risk of contamination from shared containers or the practice of decanting oil into unsuitable containers (which is an illegal practice).  Supplying the oil in small quantities and in dark glass bottles also reduces the risk of becoming stale/rancid (the process of oxidation).

 

The Sunflower originated in South America, where it was worshipped by the Aztecs as a representation of the sun. The seeds were eaten toasted or turned into meal and the plant was brought to Europe at the end of the 16th century. They are seeds are still eaten today just like nuts, and the buds used like artichokes [Kusmirek]. Sunflower seeds contain an oil yield of 30% (although some modern varieties contain 50%).

Cold-pressed sunflower oil is dark yellow in colour and has a strong ‘nutty’ aroma. Oil which is odour-free, will have been subjected to some kind of refining process. Cold-pressed oil should not be used at high temperatures, as in cooking, as it breaks down and produces toxic elements when heated.

Sunflower oil has many positive attributions to recommend its use for baby massage:

• Sunflower oil is the most widely grown edible oil crop. It is produced and sold in large quantities so it likely to be fresher than a more infrequently sold product, which may be sitting on the shelf waiting to be sold for a long period of time.

• It has a lovely light texture, which is very pleasant to use, leaving the skin with a satin-smooth, non-greasy feel.

 

• Given its high content in essential fatty acids, sunflower oil presents restructuring, regenerative and moisturizing properties.

• It resembles the human sebum in the skin [Kusmirek].

 

• Research studies demonstrate evidence that the properties in sunflower oil have an anti-microbial effect [Sechi].

• Research in Spain [Rojas-Molina] showed sunflower cooking oil not to be toxic.

 

• Studies in a Neonatal Unit, showed that using sunflower oil resulted in a significant improvement in skin condition and a highly significant reduction in the incidence of nosocomial infections and mortality [Darmstadt]

• It is not commonly associated with allergic reactions. However even refined sunflower oil, may contain minute trace elements of allergen, therefore sunflower seed-sensitive people should avoid all sunflower oil products [Zitouni].

Plant-based refined oil should not be stored in extreme temperatures. Do not store in a fridge as it can cause clouding and separation of the oil, as the oil’s natural waxes have been removed.

The refined sunflower oil used on the Neonatal Unit at Queen Charlotte’s and
St Mary’s Hospitals in London is food grade (can be ingested) and meets BP (British Pharmaceutical) and food federation standards. It is obtained from sunflower plants, which
are grown in several European countries; supply depends on the yearly climate and yield. It is manufactured in the UK [William Hodgson Co.]. The sunflower oil is produced by an alkali refining process i.e. it is refined, deodorised and heat treated. This oil is clear pale yellow in colour and has no odour. The oil is bottled by Huddersfield Royal Infirmary Hospital Pharmacy and bought in 50 ml bottles.

The olive tree dates back several thousand years. In ancient Egypt the tree was called the bak, whereas to the Romans it was the olea, derived from oleum meaning oil. It has always been portrayed as a token of peace: the dove messenger to Noah, the wearing of olive leaf garlands by the Greeks, the use of olive branches in the Jewish Feast of Tabernacles, the symbol of the United nations flag etc.
It is known as Florence oil or Lucca oil, named after the towns in Tuscany that are important trading centers for olive oil.

The olive tree is a cultivated evergreen tree, gnarled with a grayish bark and silvery green olive leaves.  The fruit is small and green, becoming black when ripened. It is the olive flesh that is used to obtain the oil, not the stone or seed. The oil is slightly green owing to the retention of trace amounts of chlorophyll. It is prone to congealing when cold, thus it is usually filtered in the warm countries where the tree is grown. In some parts of Spain a spray is used on the olives that, once applied, ensure the fruit ripens and drops within 48 hours, thus assisting with harvesting!

Olive oil has many positive attributions to recommend its use for baby massage:

• Many people enjoy using olive oil for massage use; however, it can be a little heavy and sticky with a strong odour.

• It is a good general emollient and has anti-inflammatory properties and has been known to be used for treating burns, bruises, insect bites, itchy and sensitive, chapped skin [Price].

 

• Contact allergy to olive oil is rare [Isaksson].

• Research in Spain has shown it to be non toxic [Rojas-Molina]

 

• In animal studies, olive oil application was not found to improve epidermal barrier function. In the same study sunflower oil showed significant skin barrier recovery [Darmstadt 2002].

Olive oil is used at Northwick Park Hospital (London) at the postnatal Baby Massage classes.

 

The author has not provided a policy for this oil. If using it in hospital/NNU you would need to check the Safety data Sheet and ask your pharmacy about storage. If you have any additions to these guidelines please contact me; they will be gratefully received.

The almond tree is indigenous to the Middle East, and is now cultivated in the warm climates of the Mediterranean countries and California. It is an ancient tree, which has been cultivated for thousands of years. Almonds were prized by the Greeks, who introduced them to southern Europe. The trees were grown in Italy for hundreds of years before they spread to France in the 8th century and on to Britain some 800 years later.

Cold pressed almond oil is obtained by pressing the Almond kernel, which contains up to 50% oil, and then is clarified by filtration. It then gives a yield of 35% oil.
It is more often available as refined oil, which has been chemically extracted by the use of solvents. Most Almond oil available has been solvent extracted.

This popular oil used mainly for adult massage is:

• Pale yellow in colour, odourless and easily absorbed into the skin.
• It is used in many cosmetics such as moisturising and emollient hand and facial creams.
• It is widely used and appreciated for its excellent handling characteristics for massage.

Oils derived by nuts, like almonds, are more protected from drifting chemical sprays and pollution than are more exposed seeds.

This nut oil would not be recommended if there were a history of nut allergy, if the baby had broken skin or eczema, or if the mother had decided not to eat nuts while pregnant or breast feeding.

If mothers are not consuming a nut-free diet, they may already be exposing their infant to nuts (via the blood-steam, breast milk or placenta).

 

The author has not provided a policy for this oil. If using it in hospital/NNU you would need to check the Safety data Sheet and ask your pharmacy about storage. If you have any additions to these
guidelines please contact me; they will be gratefully received.

This oil was first produced in France but is now mainly produced in Spain, Italy and California. It originally became popular for aromatherapy use because, being a
by-product from waste, it was cheap.

Grape seeds are available as by-products of the raisin, wine and juice industries. Grape seeds are very hard (if you have ever tried to crush one in your mouth you will have found out!); therefore a great deal of pressure and heat is needed to generate the oil from the seed. They only contain 5% -20% lipids depending on the grape variety. Despite this low figure the total quantity of grapes produced is so huge that there is a considerable potential for the production of the oil. It needs a lot of refining to make it acceptable for massage use.

The oil from crude, first pressing is thick and dark-coloured; not an oil one could use for massage. The refinement process involves the use of solvents, deodorizing by distilling at high temperatures, bleaching, and alkali refining.
The refining process produces oil:

• with little or no odour

• oil which keeps well.

 

• that has a good ‘slip-factor’

• that leaves the skin with a nice satin finish without being greasy.

 

In recent years grape seed oil has become rather a nutritional specialty: it is recommended to be included in diets designed for lowering serum cholesterol (Godin).

If anyone has information on Cold pressed Grapeseed oil being used as a massage medium, please can you find out the name of manufacturer and let me know how they claim to be able to achieve this. I have been informed of a USA site stating they sell cold pressed Grapeseed oil but this site did not reply when repeatedly questioned about the process. Until there is further evidence, I keep with the facts I have obtained from the oil experts and manufacturers.

The Anaphylaxis Campaign. PO Box 275, Farnborough, GU14 6SX. Tel: 01252 373793. Helpline: 01252 542029. Fax: 01252 377140. http://www.anaphylaxis.org.uk/diet.html
Crevel RW, Kerkhoff MA, Koning MM. (2000) Allergenicity of refined vegetable oils. Food Chemical Toxicology, 38 (4): 385-393. Darmstadt GL, Badrawi N, Law PA, Ahmed S, et al. (2004). Topically applied sunflower seed oil prevents invasive bacterial infections in preterm infant in Egypt: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. The pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 23(8):719-725.

The Anaphylaxis Campaign. PO Box 275, Farnborough, GU14 6SX. Tel: 01252 373793. Helpline: 01252 542029. Fax: 01252 377140.  http://www.anaphylaxis.org.uk/diet.html
Breiteneder H, Ebner C. (2001) Atopic allergens of plant foods. Current Opinion in Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 1(3):261-7
Crevel RW, Kerkhoff MA, Koning MM. (2000) Allergenicity of refined vegetable oils. Food Chemical Toxicology, 38 (4): 385-393.
Darmstadt GL, Saha SK, Ahmed AS, Choi Y, Chowdhury MA, Islam M, Law PA, Ahmed S. (2007) Effect of topical emollient treatment of preterm neonates in Bangladesh on invasion of pathogens into the bloodstream. Pediatric Research. May;61(5 Pt 1):588-93
Darmstadt GL, Badrawi N, Law PA, Ahmed S, et al. (2004). Topically applied sunflower seed oil prevents invasive bacterial infections in preterm infant in Egypt: a randomized, controlled clinical trial. The pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 23(8):719-725.

Darmstadt GL, Mao-Qiang M, Chi E, et al. (2002) Impact of topical oils on the skin barrier: Possible implications for neonatal health in developing countries. Acta Paediatr, 91 (5): 546-554.

Ewan P. (1996). Clinical study of peanut and nut allergy in 62 consecutive patients. British Medical Journal Vol.312; 1074-1077.

Essentially Oils Limited, 8-10 Mount Farm, Junction Road, Churchill, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, OX7 6PN. UK.     Web: http://www.essentiallyoils.com
Tel: 01608 659544.        Fax: 01608 659566.  E-mail: sales@essentiallyoils.com

Fremont S, Errahali Y, Bignol M, Metche M, Nicolas JP. (2002) Allergenicity of oils (Article in French). Allergie et Immunologie, Mar; 34 (3): 91-94.

Field T, Schanberg S, Davalos M, and Malphurs J. (1996). Oil Versus No Oil Massage.  Pre and Perinatal Psychology Journal, 11 73 – 78

The Fragrant Earth Co. Ltd. Orchard Court, Magdalene Street, Glastonbury, Somerset. U.K. BA6 9EW. Tel:01458 831216  Fax;01458 831361  www.fragrant-earth.com  E-mail: all-enquiries@fragrant-earth.com.

Godin, N.J. & Spensley, P.C. Oils and Oilseeds, Crop and Product Digests No.1, Tropical Products Institute, 1971. pp50-52.
Hefle SL. (1999) Impact of processing on food allergens. Advances in  Experimental  Medicine and Biology, 459: 107-119.

Hoath S, Narendran, (2000). Adhesives and emollients in the preterm infant. Seminars in Neonatology, 5: 289-296.

Hourihane J. Bedwani S. Dean T Warner T. (1997). Randomised, double blind, crossover challenge study of allergenicity of peanut oils in subjects allergic to peanuts.
 British Medical Journal  314; 1081-1088.

Isaksson M, Bruze M. (1999) Occupational allergic contact dermatitis from olive oil in a masseur. Journal of American Dermatology; Aug. 41(2 Pt 2):312-5

Kusmirek Jan (2002). Liquid Sunshine: Vegetable oils for aromatherapy. Floramicus ISBN 0-9543295-0-3.

Khakoo A, Lack G. (2004). Preventing Food Allergy. Current Allergy & Asthma Reports, 4:36 -42.

Lack G, Fox D, Northstone K, Golding J. (2003) Factors Associated with the Development of Peanut Allergy in Childhood. The New England Journal of Medicine, 348 (11):977 -985.

Dr. G Lack - Consultant Paediatric Allergist. St. Mary’s Hospital London W2 1NY.
Lane A.T & Drost S. (1993). Effects of repeated Application of Emollient Cream to Premature Neonates’ skin. Pediatrics (92) 3; 415-419.

Lee E. Gibson R, & Simmer K. (1993). Transcutaneous Application of Oil and Prevention of Essential Fatty Acid Deficiency in Preterm Infants. Archives of Diseases in Childhood 68; 27-28.

Lovegrove J. & Morgan J. (1994). Feto-maternal Interaction of Antibody and Antigen Transfer, immunity and Allergy Development. Nutrition Research Reviews; 7:25-42.

Nguyen SA, More DR, Whisman BA, Hagan LL (2004) Cross-reactivity between coconut and hazelnut proteins in a patient with coconut anaphylaxis. Annals in Allergy, Asthma and Immunology, 92 (2):281-284.

Nooper AJ, Horii KA, Sookdeo-Drost S, Wang TH, Mancini AJ, Lane AT. (1996). Topical ointment therapy benefits premature infants. Journal of Pediatrics,128 (5Pt 1): 660-669.

NMC - NURSING & MIDWIFERY COUNCIL: (Replaced the UKCC in  April 2002) It is the disciplinary body set up under the Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors Act 1992.   23, Portland Place, London W1B 1PZ  TEL: 0207 637 7181  FAX: 0207 436 2927.     www.nmc-uk.org

Olszewski A, Pons L, Moutete F, Aimone-Gastin I, et al. (1998) Isolation and characterization of proteic allergens in refined peanut oil. Clinical and Experimental allergy: Journal of the british society for Allergy & clinical Immunology, July; 28 (7):850-900.

Pourarian S, Mohammadi MK, (2006). Effect of Cutaneous Application of Sunflower-Seed Oil on Serum Triglyceride and Cholesteral Levels in Preterm Infants. Iranian Journal of Medical Science,31 (2) Email:porarish@sums.ac.ir

Price L. Price S. & Smith I. (1999). Carrier Oil for Aromatherapy & Massage. Riverhead publisher.

Rojas-Molina M, Campos-Sanchez J, Analla M, Munoz-Serrano A, Alonso-Moraga A. Genotoxicity of vegetable cooking oils in the Drosophila wing spot test. Environmental & Molecular Mutagenesis. 2005;45(1):90-5.
Roux KH, Teuber SS, Sathe SK. (2003). Tree nut allergens. International Archives of Allergy and Immunology, Aug;131(4):234-44

Sankaranarayanan K, Mondkar JA, Chauhan MM, Mascarenhas BM, Mainkar AR, Salvi RY. (2005) Oil massage in neonates: an open randomized controlled study of coconut versus mineral oil. Indian Pediatr. Sep;42(9):877-84.

SCOPA - The Seed Crushers and Oil Processors Association.
6 Catherine St., London WC2B 5JJ, United Kingdom  TEL: 44-171-836-2460; fax: 44-171-379-5735)
or IASC, P.O. Box 252, Haywards Heath, West Sussex RH16 2YG, United Kingdom (phone: 44-1444-483786; fax: 44-1444-484068).

Sechi LA, Lezcano I, Nunez N, Espim M, et al. (2001) Antibacterial activity of ozonized sunflower oil (Oleozon).  Journal of Applied Microbiology, 90 (2):279-284.

Solanki K, Matnani M, Kale M, et al. (2005) Transcutaneous absorption of topically massaged oil in neonates. Indian Pediatrics 42 (10): 998-1005.

Vital Touch oils Tel: 01803 840670

Watt M. Medical Aromatherapy Training Services. 7, Elm Court Park, Blackmore, CM4 OSE. UK. Fax: 01277 822563  E-mail: martin@aromamedical.demon.co.uk    www.aromamedical.demon.co.uk

William Hodgson & CO., (Keith Mealand)
Alderly Edge, Cheshire, UK, Tel: 01625 599111

Zatz JL (1993). Scratching the surface:rational and approaches to skin permeation. In: Zatz JL (ed) Skin permeation: fundamentals and application. Allured, Wheaton p 28.

Zitouni N, Errahali Y, Metche M, Kanny G, Moneret-Vautrin DA, Nicolas JP, Fremont S. (2000) Influnce of refining steps on trace allergenic protein content in sunflower oil. Journal of Allergy and clinical Immunology, Nov; 106 (5): 962-967.

 

Note from Cherry – This information sheet is taken from the above resource references and is subject to alteration when new information comes my way, so please feel free to contact me with comments and updates. Tel: 0208 398 6551. Email:cherrybond1@aol.com